Climate research in the geologic past

Fig.1. Global map as published by Lyell in his "Principles of Geology" (8th edition 1850) to illustrate the past climatic changes.

The climate of a region, as experienced by daily observations of a cool morning and hot midday, was for very long time considered simply the result of the height of the sun above the horizon. This idea forced a very simple view of the distribution of climates on Earth, to the poles temperature dropped, to the equator it raised, forming so large parallel climatic belts. Such a static view of the Earth also didn’t need or even allow climate changes in the past or in the future time.
With the establishment of the deep geological time by the first geologists and naturalists it became clear that not only the distribution of sea and land changed over time, but so did climate.

Read on how Lyell explained climate change by shifting "pseudo"-continents over the globe in the post at the American Scientific Guest Blog.

Geology and Cyclicity: Milankovitch´s idea

"I do not think that's my duty to teach to the ignorant the most basic things, and I have never forced anyone to accept my theory, on so far nobody could expose something."

Milutin Milankovitch in 1950

Milutin Milankovitch (1879 - 1958) was born in a relatively wealthy Serbian family, so it was almost a kind of obligation for him to archive a higher education degree and later take over the family business. So he studied agriculture, but following a passion for natural sciences he went to Vienna, where he in 1904 concluded his studies as an engineer.
Five years later he returned to Belgrad where he found employment as professor for mathematical studies at the University. Like Croll he was in search of a scientific problem worth his efforts, and in 1911, sharing some presumably good wine with a friend, he decided to develop a mathematical theory to explain climate changes on the planets of the solar system.

He studied the work of Croll, recognized his previous achievements but also noted his insufficient data. Milankovitch also consulted the work of the German mathematician Ludwig Pilgrim, who in 1904 published exact calculations of the orbital eccentricity, earth's obliquity and the rotation of the axis of earth (change of the perihelion). Pilgrim also tried to correlate the eccentricity with the occurrence of ice ages.
Between 1912 and the beginning of World War I Milankovitch published some preliminary abstracts of his developing theory, concluding that all three factors, in contrast to previous authors, are important to explain earth's climate. At the beginning of the War, Milankovitch was arrested as Serbian officer and imprisoned in his hometown Daly, but fortunately he was carrying with him his work, and so even in the first night as prisoner he continued to work. "When after midnight I looked around in the room, I needed some time to realize where I was. The small room seemed to me like an accommodation for one night during my voyage in the Universe."
Soon after he was released and travelled back to Belgrad, where he continued his work during the entire War and published some ideas about the climate of Mars and Venus.

Finally he published his theory in 1920 "Mathematische Theorie der durch Sonneneinstrahlung ausgelösten Wärmephänomene" (Mathematical theory of thermal phenomena caused by solar radiation).

Fig.1. Variations in the Earth's orbital parameters:
1. Eccentricity: the shape of the orbit around the sun.
2. Changes in obliquity: changes in the angle that Earth's axis makes with the plane of Earth's orbit.
3. Precession: the change in the direction of the Earth's axis of rotation, i.e., the axis of rotation behaves like the spin axis of a top that is winding down; hence it traces a circle on the celestial sphere over a period of time.
Together, the periods of these orbital motions have become known as Milankovitch cycles. These parameters influence the amount of solar energy on earth´s surface, especially during summer of the northern hemisphere (55°-65°N).

In his theory he postulated:
- Glaciations are caused by variations of astronomical parameters
- The parameters influence the amount of solar energy on earth´s surface, especially during summer of the northern hemisphere (55°-65°N)
- It is possible to calculate these changes, and so calculate the climate in the past.

The German meteorologists Wladimir Köppen and Alfred Wegener supported the new theory, and noted the apparent coincidence of the calculated curve with the by Penck and Brückner postulated four European glaciations.

Fig. 2. Figure from KÖPPEN & WEGENER 1924, where they correlated the calculated cycles to the know ice ages at that time.

Fig.3. Outcrop of the Trubi-Formation at Capo Spartivento (South-Italy), a succession of Globigerina-marls from the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition. The regular stripes are caused by organic rich layers, thought to be caused by changes in the biological productivity in response of changes of the astronomical parameters - the Milankovitch cycles.

References:

CHORLTON, W. (ed) (1985): Ice Ages (Planet Earth). Time-Life Books: 176
KÖPPEN, W. & WEGENER, A. (1924): Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Borntraeger, Berlin: 256

Resources:

NASA Earth Observatory: Milutin Milankovitch (1879 - 1958). Accessed 26.06.2010

Geology and Cyclicity

1842, 5 years after Agassiz's "Discourse of Neuchatel", the French mathematician Joseph Alphonse Adhémar elaborated a hypothesis to explain a cyclic occurring of ice ages. He calculated the variations of the "direction" and declination of earth axis and the "movements" of earth around the sun during the geological past.
These cyclic factors influence the time and the energy density of solar radiation that reach earth from sun, causing cyclic climatic change. Adhémar proposed that in a period of 11.000 years the hemisphere that experiences a longer winter, resulting from these three astronomical factors, would develop in an ice age.
But in 1852 Alexander von Humboldt noted that Adhémar didn't consider an important factor in his calculations, even if one hemisphere experience lower radiation, the opposite hemisphere experience an increase, so in the end the total sum remains more or less identical.

Nevertheless the idea of the French mathematician was intriguing, and would influence later researchers.

In 1833, James Croll (1821-1890), son of a poor stonecutter of Perthshire, purchased a copy of the "Penny Magazine", a magazine for children education. He was fascinated and began extensively to read, and some time later acquired he's first books dealing with natural science; "At first I was totally confused, but then the beauty and simplicity of the ideas provided me with delight and surprise, and I began seriously to study the matter."

Croll had no easy living in the next 20 years; he travelled the country, most time working as casual labourer, and in 1850 managed (for a brief time) the only Scottish pub were no alcohol was allowed.
He then found work as a maintenance supervisor of the Andersonian College in Glasgow, where he had access to the library and the hosted scientific works, a knowledge resource that he grateful exploited.
"At that time, the question of what could have triggered the ice age was much discussed among geologists. So in the spring of 1864, I directed my attention to this topic."
From 1864, Croll corresponded with Sir Charles Lyell, on links between ice ages and variations in the Earth's orbit. This led to a position in the Edinburgh office of the Geological Survey of Scotland, as keeper of maps and correspondence, where the director, Sir Archibald Geikie, encouraged his research. He also corresponded with Charles Darwin on erosion by rivers.

Croll, based on observations of the astronom Urbain Jean Josef Leverrier, used in his calculations an important factor that Adhémar did not know, the "movements" of the perihelion and aphelion on earth's ecliptic (precession of the equinoxes). He published his research in the book "Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations" in 1875.

Fig.1. Glacial and interglacial conditions when eccentricity is at its superior limit, from CROLL1875, frontispiece (from FLEMING 2006).

Fig.2. Variations in the earth's orbit for three million years before 1800 A.D. and one million years after it, from CROLL 1875, following p. 312 (from FLEMING 2006).

Geikie wrote about the work of Croll: "The astronomical theory seems to me the best solution to the present ice age riddle. It bears in it all the decisive factors for the occurrence of alternating cold and warm periods, and accounts for the peculiar character of glacial and interglacial climates."

But there was a problem, even if dating methods at these times were only approximate, geological evidences supported a very young age of glacial deposits, but after Croll´s theory the last glacial period had ended 80.000 years ago. When Croll died, highly respected, geologists considered his theory wrong.
Geikie resumed: "It may well be, that with certain modifications of his views; one day we will solve the secret. But for now we must be continue to work and wait."

The modifications as hoped by Geikie will come only years later, and a glass wine will be the first step to solve the problem of the cyclicity of glacial periods: Geology and Cyclicity: Milankovitch´s idea.

Fig.3. Orbitally forced cyclic sedimentation in the Trubi Formation of Zanclean age at Scala dei Turchi, in the Rossello composite section (Sicily), that represents the template for the Pliocene Series.

Fig.4. Orbitally forced cyclic sedimentation as expressed in the uppermost part of the Trubi Formation and in the overlying Monte Narbone Formation at Punta Piccola (Sicily), where the Piacenzian GSSP has been defined.

References:

CHORLTON, W. (ed) (1985): Ice Ages (Planet Earth). Time-Life Books: 176
CROLL, J. (1875): Climate and Time, in their Geological Relations. A theory of secular changes of the Earth's Climate. D. Appleton and Company, New York: 630
FLEMING, J.R. (2006): James Croll in Context: The Encounter between Climate Dynamics and Geology in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century. History of Meterology 3: 43 - 54

The Dolomite Mountains - The stony heart of earth

The german edition of the "National Geographic" magazine got an interesting cover story in the march issue: "The Dolomite Mountains - The stony heart of the earth."

Fig.1. Cover of National Geographic Deutschland

Fig.2. The peaks of Cisles

Sea-Level Highstand disproves ice-age CO2 connection?

The ice ages on Earth could be influenced by CO2 levels differently than previously believed. The study of speleotherms in the cave of Vallgornera situated on the Spanish island of Mallorca revealed that the polar caps were as small as today 81,000 years ago - despite lower CO2 levels.
A team of scientists of the University of Iowa has studied aragonitic and calcitic mineral deposits from five caverns situated; depending of the sea level - itself varying by the amount of “captured” water in ice caps up to 130m - the caves were inundated and different mineralogical deposition occurred.

The dated samples suggest that the sea level around 81,000 years ago was about a meter above the current value. "We have reconstructed the sea level with really high precision," says researcher Doral to the German newspaper “SPIEGEL ONLINE”.Co-author Bogdan Onac from the University of South Florida explains that Mallorca is ideal for this kind of research because tectonically stable and the observed variations should be “true” variations of sea level, not falsified by geological movements or isostatic rebound.

If the sea level 81,000 years ago was actually where the researchers suggest, an interesting problem arises: it doesn’t support the calculated 100.000-year cycle of glacial advances. Also it contradicts the direct ice-CO2 connections - despite low CO2 concentrations, and weaker greenhouse effect, the ice caps on earth were not as great as previously tough, and in dimensions comparable to modern conditions.

So are climate denialists right, and is there no such thing as anthropogenic greenhouse effect?

No, the authors want to take the results in a scientific context: the research doesn’t make claims about the global temperature during this time, only about the possible ice volume, and the amount of ice is not only controlled by temperature, but also for example by insolation of the sun, stronger 80.000 years ago then today. "What happened 80,000 years ago, is not the same as what happened today," said Onac.

REFERENCES:

DORALE et al. (2010): Sea-Level Highstand 81,000 Years Ago in Mallorca. Science Vol.327(5967): 860 - 863

Darwin's rat and other strange mammals

"I had no idea at the time, to what kind of animal these remains belonged".

C. Darwin 1839

During the first two years of his voyage aboard HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin collected a considerable number of fossil mammals from various localities in Argentina and Uruguay. He recovered his first fossils at Punta Alta on September 23, 1832, and the last two years later at Puerto San Julián.
The fossils were packaged and sent to his former mentor the botanist/geologist John Stevens Henslow, deposited in the Royal College of Surgeons in London, and finally studied and named by Richard Owen between 1837 and 1845. Based on the fossil material Owen described a variety of Pleistocene mammals, including Equus curvidens, Glossotherium sp., Macrauchenia patachonica, Mylodon darwini, Scelidotherium leptocephalum and Toxodon platensis.

Unfortunately during April 10 and 11.1941 the paleontological collection of the Royal College was heavenly damaged by bombardment, almost 95% of the collection got lost. Beginning in 1946 the remaining material was transferred to the Natural History Museum in London, where it is still housed.

Fossils were known in South America since before the Spanish conquistadores, but interpreted as the remains of mythical creatures or giants annihilated by the gods. In 1774 the English Jesuit Thomas Falkner wrote:
"On the banks of the River Carcarania, or Tercero, about three or four leagues before it enters into the Parana, are found great numbers of bones, of an extraordinary bigness, which seem human. There are some greater and some less, as if they were of persons of different ages. I have seen thigh-bones, ribs, breast-bones, and pieces of skulls. I have also seen teeth, and particularly some grinders which were three inches in diameter at the base. These bones (as I have been informed) are likewise found on the banks of the Rivers Parana and Paraguay, as likewise in Peru. The Indian Historian, Garcilasso de la Vega Inga, makes mention of these bones in Peru, and tells us that the Indians have a tradition, that giants formerly inhabited those countries, and were destroyed by God for the crime of sodomy. I myself found the shell of an animal, composed of little hexagonal bones, each bone an inch in diameter at least; and the shell was near three yards over. It seemed in all respects, except it's size, to be the upper part of the shell of the armadillo; which, in these times, is not above a span in breadth."

22 years later the French naturalist George Cuvier published the first scientific work on a fossil South American mammal, and named it the giant sloth Megatherium americanum. In 1806 Cuvier described preliminary three proboscidean types, attributing them to the genus Mastodon. After these first investigations, there was almost no further research, in 1838 Owen wrote in his opening paragraph on his work on the fossil mammals collected by Darwin:
"It may be expected that the description of the osseous remains of extinct Mammalia, which rank amongst the most interesting results of Mr. Darwin's researches in South America, should be preceded by some account of the fossil mammiferous animals which have been previously discovered in that Continent. The results of such a retrospect are, however, necessarily comprised in a very brief statement; for the South American relics of extinct Mammalia, hitherto described, are limited, so far as I know, to three species of Mastodon, and the gigantic Megatherium."

The young Darwin got some of the first fossil determination wrong, so he attributed found osteoderms (regarded by Owen to belong to the giant "armadillo" Glyptodon) to Megatherium, following a reconstruction by Cuvier of an armoured ground sloth, and molars of Toxodon as remains of a giant rodent (but even Owen admitted that these teeth's bear a certain resemblance to those of rodents).
Owen by his part got the general relationship of this mammals incorrect, attributing some genera closer to existing animal-groups then they were in fact.
Influenced by the proposal of Owen, Darwin got convicted that "The most important result of this discovery, is the confirmation of the law that existing animals have a close relation in form with extinct species." (1839), surely a further clue for Darwin that species are not isolated and immutable in time.

Ironically in the error of Darwin there is a ray of truth, toxodonts are today considered highly derived native South American ungulates, distantly related phylogenetically to rodents and guanacos, whereas the large glyptodonts are not the ancestors of armadillos, but to the contrary, the latter are antecedent to the former.

Frederick Waddy: Richard Owen "Riding His Hobby" (1873)

References:

FERNICOLA; VIZCAINO & DE IULIIS (2009): The fossil mammals collected by Charles Darwin in South America during his travels on board the HMS Beagle. Revista de la Asociacon Geologica Argentina. 64(1): 147-159

Extinctions & Excrements

"dal letame nascono i fior
dai diamanti non nasce niente"
From dung flowers are born
From diamonds nothing comes
"Via del Campo", Fabrizio de André (Italian poet-musician)

Until 20.000 years ago North America showed a biodiversity of large mammals comparable with modern Africa, if not greater. 10.000 years later 34 genera with animal-species weighing more than a ton were extinct.

The extinction of the Pleistocene Megafauna is still an unsolved mystery. The proposed hypothesis range from overkill by human hunters to a meteor impact and climate change at the end of the last glacial maximum. Geologically speaking it happened suddenly, but a new study now maybe can date more precisely the extinction pattern and duration, using an unusual data source - fossil excrements and the inhabitants of this "biotope".

In 2005 and 2006 sediment cores with a complessive length of 11,7m were taken from Appleman Lake and compared with other cores of lakes in the U.S. State of Indiana.
Thirteen wood, pollen and charcoal samples, recovered from the lacustrine sediments, were dated by radiocarbon method on ages between 7.000 and 14.000 yr BP and used interpolate an age-depth model of the core.

The fungus-genus Sporomiella lives on animal dung and the spores have to pass the digestive tract of large herbivores to germinate. The spores can also accumulate in sediments along with other micro- and macrofossils like pollen and charcoal, so the presence of the fossil spores in sediments correlates with the amount of excrements - "Lots of dung means lots of spores" (JOHNSON 2009), and the amount of dung can give a hind to extrapolate the size of the population of herbivorous animals like mastodon or mammoth.

The timing of the Sporomiella decline and the first major charcoal peak are well constrained by two dates between 14.6 and 14.7ka. The wood pollen (Quercus and Pinus) increases between 10.7 and 12.2 ka.

Figure from GILL et al. 2009: Appleman Lake time series for (A to F) percent pollen abundances of selected taxa (NAP, nonarboreal pollen), (G) Sporormiella and (I) charcoal counts.

Applying this method, Gill et al. found that the amount of spores first decreases slowly, and only in 14.800 years old sediments the number of spores decreases significantly. To old for the proposed impact, and also to old for a climatic or environmental change - vegetation change, interpolated from the pollen assemblage, namely happens only after the faunal demise, and is more probable caused by the extinction of large herbivore, then the cause of extinction.

The greatest impact of humans - in form of the Clovis Culture - on the Pleistocene landscape in North American was supposed in a time interval between 13.330 and 12.900 years ago. The new data predates the Clovis, nevertheless archaeological findings support a lesser tool specialised pre-Clovis culture in the time interval of the Megafauna collapse, so human influence could not be ruled completely out.

Figure from JOHNSON 2009.

The changing environment after the Megafauna collapse, from an open savanna with scattered trees to a spruce-broadleaf woodland, was the result of ceased pasture of shrubs and trees by Mammoth and Co. The expansion of woodlands is also supported by a larger amount of charcoal in the sediments, from time to time the woodlands caught fire, and the ash was eroded, transported and finally deposited in the examined lakes.

Even if the new method con not give us the definitive answer, at least it's provide some new data to better understand the temporal progress and the environmental change of the late Pleistocene extinction event.

References:

GILL et al. (2009): Pleistocene Megafaunal Collapse, Novel Plant Communities, and Enhanced Fire Regimes in North America. Science 326: 1100-1103 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/326/5956/1100

GILL et al. (2009): Supporting Online Material for Pleistocene Megafaunal Collapse, Novel Plant Communities, and Enhanced Fire Regimes in North America. Science 326. www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/326/5956/1100/DC1

JOHNSON (2009): Megafaunal Decline and Fall. Science 326: 1072 - 1073. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/326/5956/1072

Interview to Dr. Jacquelyn Gill by the Canadian Broadcast: mp3 (4MB)

--------- Thanks to Ole Nielson for linking to the post----------

Lac du Bouchet

How Florian correctly answered, the WoGE was the maar lake of Bouchet and it´s very long stratigraphic sequence.

Located in the south eastern part of the French Massif Central, the volcanic region of Velay contains numerous maar craters. Pollen analysis has been carried out on lake sediment sequences obtained from three of these craters - Lac du Bouchet, Ribains and Praclaux. The presence of thick trachytic tephra layer has enabled correlations between the sequences. This has led to the reconstruction of a long continental sequence from 450ka ago to the present.

The attribution of the sequence to the last five climatic cycles is based on an apparently continuous succession of warm and cold phases, which correlates with the marine oxygen isotopic record. Tephra layers in the organic deposits of Lac du Bouchet provided Ar40/Ar39 dates with an average of 275ka - after this considerations the Lac du Bouchet temperate phase is correlated to the Marine Isotopic Stadium 7.


Lac du Bouchet (44°55´N, 3°47`E, 1.200m altitude) is a 28m deep lake, and has been the subject of numerous geological and biological studies. It yielded a sediment sequence extending from about 325ka to the present.


The Bouchet sequence can be subdivided by the amount of pollen taxa in three interstadials, which shows a classical succession of tree species, from cold tolerant at the beginning, to warm climate species, to again cold tolerant trees.


The proposed chronostratigraphy for the Velay maar sites (after REILLE et al. 2000, modified).

The Bouchet I interstadial is characterised by the presence of great quantities of Carpinus pollen, other thermophile taxa like Abies and Fagus are rare, or like Taxus complete missing. The Carpinus forest was probably the dominant vegetation everywhere in Velay at that time.
The Carpinus forest was then replaced directly by a Pinus forest, the latter marking the end of the interstadial and maybe a sudden cooling.
The Bouchet II interstadial shows similarities with the fist: again a Carpinus forest develops, but this time other trees like Ulmus, Corylus, Abies, Fagus and Picea must be also been present with significant numbers. As usual, the intestadial ends with a Pinus forest.
The third interstadial - Bouchet III, differs in significant taxa appearance and significance from the earlier two interstadials. Alnus viridis, today absent in the Massif Central region, but found as pioneer species in the timberline of the Alps, plays a mayor role in the first phase of the interstadial. This tree is then replaced by Ulmus, Quercus and Corylus, an Oak forest occasionally coexisting with a Picea forest develops. Carpinus this time doesn't form a forest of its own.

The establishment of tree taxa depends not only by the climatic conditions, but also from the distance of an investigated site from the glacial refugia of the species, and the capability of this species to spread. This maybe can explain the differences between the forest developments in the three interstadials.

The site of the ancient (with sediments filled) maar of Praclaux, in the vicinity of the Lac du Bouchet, today a quiet pasture.

References:

REILLE, M.; BEAULIEU DE J.L.; SVOBODA, H.; ANDRIEU-PONEL, V. & GOEURY, C. (2000): Pollen analytical biostratigraphy of the last five climatic cycles from a long continental sequence from the Velay region (Massif Central, France). Journal of Quaternary Science (7): 665-685

debris flow calendar

The past weekend strong rainfalls caused various debris flows in my near surrounding area, with significant damages and one roadmen missing after a debris flow hit the street he was clearing from detritus.

To understand where and when these events hit is vital for appropriate response tactics and risk evaluation for urban areas. Thereby, the frequency and magnitude of debris flow events are of especial interest, also in view of climate change and human impact.
Information for past debris flow events in historic time can be obtained by studying archives or contemporaneous eyewitness reports/images. Prehistoric events can be reconstructed by 14C-dating of buried soils, dendrochronolgy or lichenometry. The disadvantage of these approaches is their limited time span and coarse resolution.

In the bottom sediments of the lake of Braies, in the Dolomite Alps, another possible long term record was, and still is, studied (IRMLER 2003; IRMLER et al. 2006). The lake Braies is an alpine lake on 1.492m a.s.l. with a maximum area of nearly 36ha and a catchment area of 30 square kilometres. It is surrounded by mountains up to 2.800m, dominated by dolo- and limestone formations. Several debris flow cones extend from the slopes of the mountains to the southern and eastern shores of lake Braies.

View to south with the main debris flow cones entering the lake Braies.

Simplified geological map of the lake and surrounding area (after IRMLER 2003).

In thin sections recovered from cores taken from the bottom lake sediments between annual laminations several "event layers", representing debris flows, were recognised.
Entering the lake, the debris flow brought more fine sediments in the lake then the average sedimentation rate of some millimetres per year. Under the microscope graduated layers, with progressive fining upward sequence, from well-sorted fine to middle sand at the base to silt and clay on the top could be recognized. Load casts and flame like structures support reconstructed rapid deposition. These structures indicate that the sediment moved as underflow (hyperpycnal flow - density current) into the lake basin.
A second category of layers lacked the above mentionetd characteristics, nevertheless these layers show a graduation and are much thicker than the surrounding lamination - up to seven times. These sediments are interpreted as deposits of overflow currents (hypopycnal or homopycnal flow).

Example of the studied core with recognizable annual lamination (from IRMLER 2003).

Erosive contact between annual lamination and a debris flow layer. The base of a debris flow layer is usually very coarse and the single grains more or less the same size.
Photo C) and D) shows so-called "flame structures" and small grooves - caused by the erosion of a debris flow event (Picture size ca 3.9 mm), from IRMLER 2003.

With this approach a debris flow calendar for the last 2250 years could be reconstructed. (IRMLER et al. 2006). During this time the recurrence interval of debris flows varies between 1 and 127 years. At an average of every 16 years a debris flow was deposited. The comparison with climatic phases, from the "Medieval Warm Period" to the "Little Ice Age" showed no significant correlation of events in the catchment area of lake Braies with climatic phases.
The study shows that lake sediments represent a good archive for reconstructing debris flows. In doing so, the record provides the possibility of estimation from the past the threat posed by natural hazards and gives important data for future hazard prediction assessment.

References:

IRMLER, R.; DAUT, G. & MÄUSBACHER, R. (2006): A debris flow calendar derived from sediments of lake Lago di Braies (N. Italy). Geomorphology 77:69-78
IRMLER (2003): Seesedimente als natürliches Archiv zur Erstellung eines Murkalenders am Beispiel des Pragser Wildsees (Norditalien). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Jena, Germany.

Quaternary stratigraphy

The quaternary has a long-established tradition of sediment sequences divided on the basis of climatic changes influencing the deposited sediments, particularly sequences in central Europe and North America where divided with this approach.

The German pioneers PENCK & BRÜCKNER divided on the basis of glacial diamicton and nonglacial deposits the terrestrial stratigraphical sequence in the Alps into four main glacial (glaciation), and corresponding interglacial periods. This scheme was based on the identification of glaciofluvial sediments - attributed to glacials- that could be traced upstream until corresponding moraines. The fossil soils between these deposits were interpreted as interglacial weathering.
Although later workers added earlier events to this first sequence, the basic structure remained dominant for more than half a century - and seemed to be recognised all over the world.

In North- and Central Germany the relative division of the Quaternary is based - following the tradition- mainly on glaciofluvial gravels, fossil soils, Loess, moraines and limnic sediments.
The extensive mining for coal and gravel provided exceptionally vast outcrops to study these sediments.

Map with the discussed localities and the main recognized ice sheet stands.
See also: Gamsenberg / Westeregeln / Hundisburg / Bilzingsleben / Ehringsdorf /Weimar and Pennickental

The gravel pit of "Wallendorf" in Thuringia exposes typical, 12 to 5m thick gravel deposits - denominated "Wallendorfer Schotter". These gravels, with rocks outcropping in the Thuringian basin and Thuringian forest, were transported to this locality by the small rivers Ilm and Unstrut, that joined the greater Saale river.

Gravel pit with the "Wallendorfer gravel", attributed to the Holstein interglacial (ca. 350-300kyr).

The Wallendorfer gravels overlay with an unconformity a moraine (Elster) and varved sediments, and are overlay by remains of a younger moraine (Saale), so the unit was attributed to the "Hauptterassenkomplex", the sequence of fluvial terraces deposited during the classical Holstein - interglacial.
The decalcification of the lower part of the partly calcareous gravels, and also the studied mollusc assemblage, seems to confirm a temperate climate with ongoing weathering and soil development.
But the presence of lithic artefacts and bones of ice age steppe animals, like mammoth, auerochs and reindeer, also with ice wedge casts, demonstrates that the upper part of the gravels were already deposited during cold conditions and the beginning of a glacial.

Ice wedge cast in the upper sequence of the "Wallendorfer gravel". This features are typical for periglacial conditions.

Varved sediments and the moraine of the Elster glacial - the next "deeper" sediments in the stratigraphic column- can be observed in the gravel pit "Rehbach".

Gravel pit "Rehbach".

Here, in a proglacial lake, fine clayey sediments were deposited until the advancing ice sheet run down the previously deposited sediments. On the basis of the moraine reworked, probably transported in frozen state, clasts can be observed.

Varved lake clay -deposited in a proglacial lake.

The contact between the varved lake sediments (note the brown layers) and the massive, loamy moraine.

Sandy clast with some pebbles in the transition area between lake sediments and moraine, probably reworked and fluvial transported (in frozen state) material then incorporated at the basis of the moraine.

What seems like an easy recognisable alternation of glacial and interglacial sediments, can however present local conditions that can be very tricky. In the gravel pit Karsdorf a succession of polymict gravels is suddenly overlay by sand with gravel lenses. This seems inconsistent with any sudden climatic change, or stratigraphic pattern in the region.

Outcrop in the gravel pit "Karsdorf", sand is overlay by large scale lenses of pebbles and coarse grained rubble.

Shear imbrication typical for debris flows overlay sandy sediments of fluvial orogin.

Only the study of the large outcrop, the topography and the underlying geology solved this apparent mystery.
The upper sand-gravel-rubble unit represents an alluvial fan, that coming from the circumjacent limestone hills joined the former pathway of the Unstrut river, and probably forced the river to change flow direction.

The discussed division is fundamentally lithological. However sediments are not unambiguous indicators of climate (for example the "Wallendorf gravels extend from a "warm" climate to a "cold"), so that other evidence, such as fossil assemblages, characteristic sedimentary structures (including periglacial structures) or textures, and soil development must be also considered. Local and regional variability of climate complicates additionally the attribution of sediments to climatic phases. The correlation between stratigraphy of different localities is mostly only possible were large outcrops are present, or very distinct sediments were found.

The climatic subdivision of the Quaternary is not without problems, in contrast with the rest of the geological column, which is divided using time (chronostratigraphy). The relative correlation between terrestrial glacial and interglacial periods is difficult and restricted mostly geographically - especially the correlation with the well dated and accepted marine records, that at least shows 40 climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene, is still at the first steps.

References:

GIBBARD, P.L. (2006): Climatostratigraphy. In (ed): ELIAS, S.A.: Encyclopedia of quaternary science. Elsevier : 2819-2847
BERNHARDT, W.; THUM, J.; SCHNEEMILCH, M. & RUDOLPH, A. (1997): Flußschotter als Schaufenster in die Zeit der ältesten Besiedelung Mitteldeutschlands. Archäologie in sachsen-Anhalt Nr.6. Archäologische Gesellschaft in Sachsen-Anhalt, Halle
WEBER, T. (1996): Das Paläolithikum und das Mesolithikum in Mitteldeutschland. Archäologie in sachsen-Anhalt Nr.6. Archäologische Gesellschaft in Sachsen-Anhalt, Halle

Caves and the dream of long term records

Within the Alps, long term climate records, ranging to the last or even to the penultimate interglacial are exceptionally rare. We are simply lacking sediments of these periods - sediments of interglacial's were systematically eroded by the (re)advance of glaciers, lay hidden under younger sediments (mostly postglacial alluvional river deposits) or are simply not yet recognised.

In cave systems we are not (so) affected by the destructive power of glaciers, so there maybe can be found sediments ranging much deeper in time, with a record much completer then in the outside world.

Speleothem growth depends strongly from temperature and water chemistry, and water in liquid form depends strongly by temperature of the environment outside the cave. During a cold period, water will be trapped in form of ice on the surface, and water percolation in the underground will be very restricted or completely missing - the speleothem will stop to growth. During warming, and melting of ice, again water is available, and the speleothem goes on growing. So just the presence of speleothems can provide a first clue to reconstruct past climates. But even better - the isotopic composition of the precipitation changes with the amount of water trapped in ice shields - so measuring the relationship between the two oxygen isotopes (the "light" 16O and the "heavy" 18O) in the- from the water deposited - carbonates, can give a direct information's of extend of ice shields, and so climate, during the past. And the carbon isotopes 13C and 12C, also found in the carbonate, give hinds on vegetation and soil cover of the catchment area of the cave. Plants assimilate preferred the lighter isotope - a high values of delta13C indicate low or even negligible input of soil-derived organic carbon into the dripwater.

Spannagel cave is a large high altitude (entrance to the cave 2.531m, extending down in two main branches to ca. 2.200m a.s.l.) cave network with approximately 10km of length in the Zillertal Alps of Austria.

The "Hintertux glacier" with the morain of the last highstand (1850). The entrance of the Spannagel caves - and also the Spannagel hut- lies on the upper end of the left morain.

It is the largest out of a series of more than 30 caves that developed within the Jurassic marble that covers the "Zentralgneiss" - the tectonic uplifted gneiss core of the "Tauern window", and is itself overlie by the phengitic gneisses.

The area above the cave today is ice free, but it was covered partially by the Hintertux glacier until 1850, and covered entirely by up to 250 thick ice during the past glacial. U/Th dates in the cave showed that deposition of the speleothems occurred repeatedly during the past few hundred thousand years, and is still ongoing, thanks of the constant temperature (1-2°C) in the cave slightly over the freezing point of water.


A stalagmite in the cave, composed of dense, columnar calcite, apparently grew without significant interruption for ca. 50 ka, albeit at a very slow rate, during the penultimate interglacial. The oxygen isotope record shows three prominent maxima, representing three warm phases, separated by a long earlier and a shorter later cold period. The mid points of the transitions into the three warm phases occurred at 240 ± 3 (correlated subsequently with the MarineIsotopicStadium 7.5), 215 ± 2 (MIS 7.3) and 200 ± 3 ka (MIS 7.1) and the end of the interglacial (MIS 7/6 transition) was dated to 190 ± 3 ka.

During full glacial periods no speleothem growth could be found. During the transition of interglacial to glacial conditions the sudden drop of the isotopes values suggest a cooling, but speleothems growth continues. Comparing the curve of the oxygen isotopes with the carbon isotopes shows a remarkable pattern - both curves appear very similar, relatively high delta18O values indicating warm atmospheric conditions coincide with high delta13C values. This suggests very little if any vegetation at this cave during the warm periods, and so less favourable conditions than today - were at least a thin soil developed.
The later interglacial (MIS 5), and also the Holocene show data with higher values of delta18O, and a low delta13C value during the "high stand" of oxygen - high temperature and thick soil and vegetation cover.

Continuous stable isotope record of speleothem growth during the Marine Isotope Stage 7 at the high-alpine Spannagel Cave, Central Alps. SPÖTL et al. (2008): Spannagel Cave, Austria MIS 7 Speleothem Stable Isotope Data. Age is given in kyr BP, isotope ratio per mil VPDB).
Relatively high (reaching -8 to -9 0/00) delta18O values indicating warm atmospheric conditions, these values during the observed interglacial coincide with relative high delta13C values (>2 0/00). The 13C isotope derives mostly of anorganic sources (p.e. dissolving limestone), so high values are sign of lacking vegetation or organic rich soil cover. During "cold periods" complete lack of soil and vegetation produces the high peak between 230-220kyrs.

These facts let conclude that the penultimate interglacial posess three major climatic phases, with warmer periods separated by cooler periods. On average this interglacial was less warmer then the last interglacial or the Holocene in this altitude, with consequent lower equilibrium lines for glaciers. The catchment area of the Spannagel cave must be covered by ice, but the ongoing growths of speleothems demonstrate the presence of water - this implies warm based conditions beneath the ice. Only during full glacial conditions no speleothem deposit occurred.

References:

SPÖTL, C.; MANGINI, A.; BURNS, S.J., FRANK, N. & PAVUZA, R. (2002): Speleothems from the high-alpine Spannagel cave, Zillertal Alps (Austria). In (ed.) SASOWSKY & MYLROIE: Studies of Cave Sediments: Physical and Chemical Records of Paleoclimate
SPÖTL et al.(2006): The last and the Penultimate Interglacial as Recorded by Speleothems From a Climatically Sensitive High-Elevation Cave Site in the Alps. In SIROCKO, F. et al. (ed): The climate of past interglacial. Developments in Quaternary Science 7.
VOLLWEILER, N.; MANGINI, A.; SPÖTL, C.; SCHOLZ, D. & MÜHLINGHAUS, C. (2009: Stalagmites from Spannagel cave (Austria) and holocene climate. Geophysical Research Abstracts. Vol.11

Mountains as only witnesses

Like islands in the sea small hills, only some dozen meters in height, rises from the flat landscape of the "Orla-valley" south of Weimar. These “mountains” consists of limestone of ancient reefs, growing once in the Permian "Zechstein - sea". Tectonic and erosion have done they dirty work since them, leaving behind only isolated “Zeugenberge” (rude translated in Witnesses mountains) from the marine deposits.

The archeological site "Gamsenberg".

In a flat landscape every vantage point, that enables a hunter to overlook a vast territory, is of strategic importance. And in fact during the last ice age early man observed from this Zeugenberge the glacial steppe in search for the big herds of mammals.

Today the summits of these hills are mostly flat, covered by dense shrubby vegetation, and the surrounding landscape is characterized by villages, fields and scattered trees.
During excavations in a depression on the summit of the “Gamsenberg” – presumably in a karst depression or a collapsed cave - underlying 1,5m thick Loess deposits from the last glacial, a fossil soil was discovered, that contained lithic artefacts, bone fragments and charcoal. This paleosoil developed under warm climatic conditions on rubble of the underlying limestone, this rubble also shows cryoturbation.

The stratigraphic section of the archeological site "Gamsenberg". The upper part consists of Loess deposits, that overlay periglacial displaced rubble and rock fragments (cryoturbation).

Dating of glacial loess samples resulted in ages between 44.700+-4.500 and 41.900+-4.600 years. Between this stratigraphic layer and the horizon with the artefacts bones of micro mammals were found, especially the remains of pika (Ochotona) and lemming (Lemmini) indicate dry, cold conditions. Dating of the layer with the artefacts gave an age of 52.500 to 70.900 years, the bone fragments in this layer belong to animals like elk (Alces), horse (Equus hydruntinus and taubachensis), stag (Cervus elaphus), deer (Capreolus capreolus), auerochs (Bos) or bison (Bison) and a undetermined proboscidean (Mammuthus ?).
This animal assemblage is indicative for a dry, continental to boreal climate, with a mosaic of tree spots and steppe areas. The paleobotanic remains are also indicative to a climate with warm summers, but an annual average temperature to low to permit the establishment of deciduous tree forests.

The only time period that coincide with the radiometric ages, and also with a change between warm to cold climate temperatures, like indicated by the sedimentological and paleontological evidences, is the Odderade interstadial between 70 to 60kyrs during the Weichsel ice age.

Humans, presumably Neanderthals, used the Zeugenberge as ideal vantage point to overlook the steppe with sparse wood spots during an interstadial of the last glacial period. Here they prepared their tools, using rocks like flintstone (found in morainic deposits 20 kilometres away), quartz, greywacke and siliceous schist. After spotting a herd of animals, and (hopefully) successful hunt, they returned and butchered their prey on this site. Then, during full glacial conditions some 50.000 years ago wind transported dust covered the abandoned site, and only today, the karst fissures return their hidden secrets.

References:

WEBER, T. (1996): Das Paläolithikum und das Mesolithikum in Mitteldeutschland. Archäologie in sachsen-Anhalt Nr.6. Archäologische Gesellschaft in Sachsen-Anhalt, Halle

Dating cave sediments

The decay chains between radioactive and a series of daughter isotopes is a useful tool to date sediments and rocks.

The radioactive decay process of uranium (238U and 235U) and thorium (in the form of either 230Th or 232Th) were investigated in 1938, but only in the 1950s and 1960s the method was applied to date lacustrine carbonates, marine sediments, corals and cave calcite deposits.

Thorium is a daughter product in the 238U decay chain. This element is much less soluble in water than uranium and is not found in groundwater, thus, speleothems (including flowstones, stalagmites and stalactites) formed in caves as a result of precipitation of calcium carbonate from aqueous solutions, will show an uranium-, but no thorium content. Thorium will be produced only as the uranium isotopes decay with time, providing a dating tool for such materials in the age range for some 100ka.

Speleothems are well suited for this dating method because their calcite crystals are usually large and have little tendency to recrystallize after deposition, forming so a "closed" system, where no contamination can "enter", and no information can "escape".
When viewed in cross section many speleothems display a prominent laminated structure (growth layers), caused by variation of the deposition conditions and so the deposited material (p.e. amount of fluid inclusions or organic matter).

The growth of speleothems depends not only from the presence of water, but also of it’s content of dissolved CO2. Before percolating through the bedrock, surface water is exposed first to atmospheric CO2 and then to soil gases enriched in biogenic CO2, from where most dissolved CO2 in groundwater comes.

The stratigraphy of the Conturines cave was recorded during the excavations conducted from 1988 to 1990, from 1996 to 1998 and in 2001. As excavation site the first encountered area with the scattered bones and skulls, where the small conduit opens in the much larger main hall of the cave – denominated conveniently “hall of skulls”- was chosen. The floor of the upper parts of the cave is covered by up to 2m thick flowstone that shows a fine lamination, maybe representing annual cycles.


It is overlain in turn by sand, fossiliferous dolomitic sand, again sand without fossil and finally large blocks.
The presence of such thick flowstone implies, that there were abundant precipitation and conditions favourable to develop soil horizons and vegetation cover in the catchment area of the cave. This limits the period of flowstone genesis to an interglacial or a warm interstadial period.
The fossils of cave bear are found only in the sand overlying the flowstones, implying that this deposit is younger. Cave bears were herbiverous animals, but today vegetation can found only 1.000m lower. During the occupation of the cave by the cave bear, vegetation was aviable in immediate vicinity, this also let´s assume that this deposits represents another warm period, with a shrub- and treebelt extending much higher then today.

So at least we need two periods were the temperatures reached higher values then today on this site – this was the case during the interglacials of the Eemian (130 to 120kyr) and the Holstein (350-300kyr). The comparation of the anatomical features of the Conturines bear with other high alpine extinct bear species seemed to confirm an minimal age between 65.000 to 30.000 years, implying a hypotetical warm and icefree period just before the glacial maximum 20.000 years ago.

So it is possible by the stratigraphy and the evolution “niveau” of the bear fossils to restrict the sedimentation phase in the cave to a period between 300kyr and 30.000 years ago.

It’s notable that the radiometric dating method confirmed in part this hypothesis. The dates of the flowstone samples resulted beyond the range of dating of 350kyr by the thorium - uranium method. The bone-bearing sands are much younger, the two oldest dates obtained by dating the bones are 87+-5kyr and 108+-8/-7kyr. Similar to the flowstone dates, the C14 method applied to the bones resulted in an age older then 39.000 years - beyond the limit of this method.
Even if this shifts the possible ages for the first sedimentation phase considerably to older ones, the flowstone still could be deposited during, or slightly before the Holstein, or – and this would be very exceptional, during the Cromer interglacial (800kyr).
Then a sedimentation phase follows, with the deposition of grey, yellow and red sand, containing no fossils, overlaid by the fossil bearing sand and rubble layer. The radiometric results seems to confirm an age for the occupation of the cave by the bear during, or just after the Eemian.
Then erosion removes and reworks in part the fossiliferous sandy layers – channels forms, which later were refilled with an grey sandy material, again lacking fossils.

This example shows how the limitations of the different dating methods can be compensated in part by careful observations and the “strengths” of other methods, and many different results are needed to reconstruct the sedimentation history in a "restricted" environments like caves.


References:

SCHWARCZ, H. Speleothems. In (ed): ELIAS, S.A. (2006): Encyclopedia of quaternary science. Elsevier : 290-300
SPÖTL et al.(2006): The last and the Penultimate Interglacial as Recorded by Speleothems From a Climatically Sensitive High-Elevation Cave Site in the Alps. In SIROCKO, F. et al. (ed): The climate of past interglacial. Developments in Quaternary Science 7.